Definitions

1. Dual Federalism
   Dual federalism is a system in which functions of government are distributed between
   the federal government and the state government, but the two governments remain distinctly
   autonomous of each other. The dual federalism was practiced until the 1930’s, when through
   landmark rulings, the federal government was deemed supreme over state government in matters
   of citizenship, security, foreign policy and so on
   http://www.wwnorton.com/college/polisci/american-politics-today2/full/ch/03/outline.aspx
2. Substantive Legitimacy
   Legitimacy is reasonable expectation by a person to receive a judicial review. It
   becomes substantive when the individual feels that the bureaucracy have failed to honor their
   right to be heard or represented on a legitimate issue.
   http://www.academia.edu/8082103/Substantive_Legitimate_Expectations_in_Administrative_La
   w
3. Iron-Triangle of Policy Making
   This is a model in policy-making, in which congress, bureaucrats and interest groups
   cooperate tightly in cohorts to formulate and implement federal policy or programs. Interest
   groups who sponsor the Congress to the legislature canvass for favorable policy outcomes, the
   congress members pressurize bureaucrats to implement policy in return for budget votes, while

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bureaucrats implement policy in favor interest group and congress
http://www.ushistory.org/gov/8.asp

4. Cooperative Federalism
   Central government has the upper or coercive authority over subordinate governments in
   implementing national policy. The New Deal’s Works Process Administration was a federal
   government program that was passed down to states to aid in the recovery after the Great
   Depression. http://study.com/academy/lesson/cooperative-federalism-definition-examples.html
5. Comprehensive/Rational Policy Making
   This is a systematic and analytical selection of a course of action from a number of
   alternative choices, which is based on reasoning and available facts. The policy maker works
   with limited budget and competing needs, and therefore has to carefully select the most desirable
   action after comparing and forecasting both positive and negative outcomes of each alternative
   http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/rational-decision-making.html#ixzz414Ega73i and
   http://sydney.edu.au/mekong/documents/current_projects/mli_policyworkshop_introreadings_m
   ar05.pdf
6. Issue-Framing
   Issue-framing is the way media and opinion groups present salient issues to the public
   with a view to directing them to issues or bending them towards a desired response, especially
   with regard to current issues. For example, by framing abortion as “murder of unborn child” they
   influence even some pro-choice advocates http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008423900014918
7. Agenda-Setting
   Agenda setting is the ability of media, legislature or interest group to originate
   awareness on salient issues and shape the public’s focus on those issues. Over time, the general

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public will form their own opinions, but the agenda will have been set for them.
https://www.unc.edu/~fbaum/teaching/articles/J-Communication-2007-1.pdf

8. Positive Liberty
   To possess ability to act on free choice without facing internal constraints. Free choice is
   achieved when social structures permit it, for example freedom from discrimination,
   classification, and so on http://www.westga.edu/~rlane/law/lecture23_freedom2.html and
   http://www.theguardian.com/politics/2005/dec/17/labour.uk, Negative vs. positive
9. Incrementalism
   This is a mode of implementing policies by up scaling the original policy goals. The aim
   by the policy makers and implementers is to not raise public expectations too high and be
   criticized for failing to reach expectations. Micro policies can also be implemented in stages with
   an overall aim of accomplishing a macro policy, for example, implement small policies on roads,
   railways, and other means of transport, with a view to achieving an overall transport policy.
   http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/incrementalism.html
10. Pluralism
    Pluralism is a state in which the state is governed by divergent and competing centers of
    power, such as political parties, trade unions, activists, professional associations, and so on. The
    groups compete on ideas, policies, and programs, mainly using political platforms.
    https://www.udel.edu/htr/American/Texts/pluralism.html
11. Cost-Benefit Analysis
    Cost-Benefit Analysis is an analytical approach to assessing the benefits of one action
    instead of an alternative action. It is used in political economics when assessing the cost of
    implementing a government program and foregoing another program.

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12. Elitism
    Grouping of a few influential who hold state power and influence public policy. As
    individuals elitists believe that they have superior abilities, qualities, intellects or other desirable
    attributes that allow them to control power, influence public opinion and policy.
    http://ips.sagepub.com/content/29/1/7 and http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0192512107083445
13. State-Centric Model
    Centric implies tendency towards a common point, and a model is a blueprint upon
    which the policy is designed and implemented. A state-centric model is a governance policy that
    combines decision-making of states under the guidance of the federal government.
    http://poseidon01.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=04409010106611012706406608100609408803405
    609003607902402302412311106601010803108407506005603202804704411502509902400208
    210011311207502808009208002612710103101511604801400907002602612410108209208502
    4027075007094031068112102064026103007024005067097008&EXT=pdf
14. Issue-Attention Cycle
    New issues tend to captivate public interest for a while, but over time the issue is
    overran by a new issue or people lose interest. The duration of an issue remaining in the
    limelight is called issue-attention cycle. Issues like corruption persist longer than issues like
    burglary. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/s0008423900014918
15. Goal Displacement
    This is the practice by the bureaucracy of diverting resources from the initial intended
    policy or implementation. When goals are untenable or difficult to achieve, the bureaucracy and
    legislature change the policy and convince the public that the new policy was actually intended

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to be http://home.iitk.ac.in/~amman/soc474/Resources/bureaucracy.pdf, p.10 and
http://teep.tamu.edu/pubs/par01.pdf

16. Bureaucracy
    This is the government body as well as the process of implementing government policy,
    executive orders, and legislative decisions. The process is cumbersome because it passes through
    several stages of vetting and approval, called “red tape”, which make implementation inefficient
    http://www.wwnorton.com/college/polisci/american-politics-today2/full/ch/12/outline.aspx nnd
    http://www.ushistory.org/gov/8.asp.